Establishing the provenance of the Nazareth Inscription: Using stable isotopes to resolve a historic controversy and trace ancient marble production
Introduction
This study uses stable isotope analysis for a novel application: exploring the provenance of the marble used for one of the most mysterious and potentially important epigraphic documents to survive from classical antiquity, the so-called Nazareth Inscription. Written in Greek on a slab of marble 60 cm tall, 37.5 cm wide, and 6 cm deep, the inscription records the text of an edict issued by a Roman ruler identified only as “Caesar” (Robert, 1936). The edict demands that tombs and graves remain undisturbed and that corpses not be destroyed or thrown out (Cumont, 1930). The edict classifies corpse removal and tomb disturbance as capital offenses. The text was first published in 1930, five years after the death of its long-time owner, Wilhelm Froehner. Froehner was an enigmatic German-born collector who moved in Parisian circles for over half a century (Hellmann, 1992, Harper, 2018). Froehner acquired the marble in 1878 in Paris and secluded it in his private collection until his death. His exiguous notes indicate that it was “sent from Nazareth” (Robert, 1936). Today, the artifact is held in the collection of the Département des Monnaies, Médailles et Antiques of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
Like many artifacts in western collections, the Nazareth Inscription was acquired before modern standards of archaeology and museum accessioning were established, and hence, the true provenance of the Nazareth Inscription, and its route to Froehner in Paris in 1878, are unknown. This uncertainty has complicated the study of the document. A number of hypotheses have been proposed to account for the inscription’s original context and purpose (reviewed in Tsalampouni, 2001). The content of the edict and the style of the lettering suggest a date sometime between the later first century BC and the first century CE, the formative period of Roman imperialism in the eastern Mediterranean. One hypothesis holds that the inscription originated in the Levant (whether in Nazareth or, as seems more likely, a nearby town like Sepphoris or Tiberias) and represents the Roman Emperor’s reaction to the controversy stirred by claims of Christ’s resurrection from the tomb (Gruyzbek and Sordi, 1998). As the Gospel of Matthew (see Matthew 28:16) and other early texts make clear, the question aroused intense polemics in Palestine and beyond, already during the career of the apostle Paul (fl. ~ 30–64 CE, e.g. First Corinthians 1:23). Nazareth was a relatively obscure village in the Galilee, notable for little in Roman times other than being the hometown of Jesus (Tzaferis and Bagatti, 1993). If the purpose of the edict was somehow a reaction to the early Christian movement, then this document stands as the oldest physical artifact connected to the new religion and among the most important inscriptions from the ancient world.
A competing interpretation argues that the inscription has nothing to do with Christianity, nor even the Levant (Giovannini and Hirt, 1999). In this hypothesis, the provenance of the inscription was Asia Minor, rather than Palestine. Froehner, or some other buyer along the way, was misled into believing that the stone had some connection to Nazareth, perhaps by a seller hoping to enhance the market value of the artifact. One study maintains that the Nazareth Inscription should be seen as part of the efforts of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus (adopted son of Julius Caesar and founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of emperors), to bring order to Asia after the period of civil war that had characterized much of the preceding generation (Giovannini and Hirt, 1999). Its argument depends heavily on the observation that the Greek word used for tomb-robbery is rare outside the inscriptions of Asia Minor (of 177 examples they found, only two come from other regions). But the evidence is inconclusive, especially given the relative paucity of comparable contemporaneous inscriptions from other parts of the empire, including Palestine.
The matter remains unsettled and has reached an impasse. We have used geochemical analysis to trace the provenance of the stone and clarify this particular question. At the same time, this study takes a first step in developing the potentially massive evidence of surviving ancient inscriptions whose texts bear an explicit date or datable reference as precise geochemical tracers of stone movement. Localizing the quarries that supplied the stone for Greek and Latin inscriptions would illuminate how the supply, demand, and distribution patterns of one of the most widely traded ancient raw materials changed over time. The pinpoint chronology of many inscriptions, bearing the date when they were engraved, would also shed bright new light on the ever vexed question of the precise chronology of extraction of specific quarries, a process which by its very nature removes most evidence about the timing of extraction (Ward-Perkins, 1980, Lazzarini, 2004, Russell, 2013). Establishing a precise chronology of extraction would, in turn, allow more exact, scientifically-grounded dates of the countless sculptures and buildings that incorporate the extracted marbles but lack explicit dates (Herz and Waelkens, 1988).
Marbles consist of carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite (CaCO3) and to a lesser extent dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). There have been numerous studies concerning the stable carbon and oxygen isotope compositions of marbles, many of which have been shown to have distinct isotopic signatures resulting from their parent rock compositions and metamorphic histories (e.g., Craig and Craig, 1972, Lapuente et al., 2000, Lazzarini and Antonelli, 2003, Attanasio et al., 2006, Attanasio et al., 2008, Lazzarini and Malacrino, 2010, Antonelli and Lazzarini, 2015). A common geochemical approach that has been used to establish the provenance of archaeological marble artifacts has been to compare their respective stable carbon and oxygen isotope compositions to those of marbles from quarries from throughout the Mediterranean region (e.g. Craig and Craig, 1972, Lapuente et al., 2000, Antonelli et al., 2014, Al-Bashaireh and Bedal, 2017). But to the best of our knowledge, previous studies have not used stable isotope analysis to identify the quarry of an important inscription whose provenance was unknown.
The Bibliothèque nationale de France granted the authors permission to obtain minute samples from the back of the Nazareth Inscription (Fig. 2). As will be discussed below, its distinctive isotopic signature enabled us to establish a likely source for this marble tablet and to provide a novel hypothesis for the precise context for the origins of the imperial edict.
Section snippets
The Nazareth Inscription
In twenty-two lines of Greek, the text of the Nazareth Inscription presents an edict of an unnamed Roman emperor imposing severe punishment for the disturbance of tombs and corpses. The inscription reads: “Edict of Caesar. It is my pleasure that graves and tombs which anyone has prepared as a pious service for forebears, children, or members of his household are to remain forever unmolested. But if any person shows that another either has destroyed them, or in any other way has cast forth the
Results
Triplicate stable isotope analyses of the Nazareth Inscription marbles (Table 1) had mean values and standard errors of 5.2 ± 0.1‰ (standard deviation 0.2‰) for carbon and −10.5 ± 0.3‰ (standard deviation 0.5‰) for oxygen. Of the hundreds of marbles and marble artifacts that have been analyzed from numerous locations in the Mediterranean, the Nazareth Inscription matches most closely a relatively unique isotopic signature previously reported by Lazzarini and Malacrino (2010) for white calcite
Discussion
Assuming that the marble originated in the Mediterranean region, the stable isotope data presented above strongly indicate that the marble used for the Nazareth Inscription came from Kos. The quarries of Kos were an important source of marbles for major construction projects dating back to the second century BCE (Lazzarini and Malacrino, 2010, Poupaki, 2017). Further, a large number of inscriptions on marble survive from Kos itself during the period when the Nazareth Inscription was engraved,
Conclusions
Stable isotopes afford a powerful probe for determining the provenance of ancient marble antiquities. Our preliminary results indicate that marble from the upper quarry of the island of Kos is a likely source for the tablet of the Nazareth Inscription, although we cannot completely rule out additional marbles from the region of similar stable isotope compositions that have yet to be discovered and/or reported.
The use of stable isotope analysis provides new information about the history of this
CRediT authorship contribution statement
K.H., M.M., R.M., and M.E. designed the study; R.M. sampled the materials; C.P. and R.M. performed elemental analysis; M.H. and M.E. performed isotopic analysis; K.H., M.M., M.H., R.M, and M.E. wrote the paper.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Franck Bellugeon (Bibliothèque nationale de France) for guidance and help within Bibliothèque nationale de France. We are deeply grateful to Mathilde Avisseau-Broustet, Conservateur en chef au département des Monnaies, médailles et antiques, Bibliothéque nationale de France, for permitting access to the Nazareth Inscription, to Cécile Morrisson for kind assistance throughout, and to the Initiative for the Science of the Human Past at Harvard University. We thank
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